THOMSON's ATOMIC MODEL

The first simple model of an atom was proposed by J.J Thomson. According to Thomson, an atom is a positively charged uniform sphere of radius 10(minus 8) cm in which electrons are embedded in such a way that negative charge equals to positive charge. This model was also called plum-pudding model and water melon model.
This model was unable to explain the stability of an atom.

VOCABULARY(A)

ABDICATE : to give up power

SYNONYM : refusal from the power, renounce

ANTONYM : to gain power

The old king abdicated the throne.

VOCABULARY(A)

ABBREVIATE : to shorten

SYNONYM : to abridge, to curtail

ANTONYM : Lengthening, enhancing

The voluminous book was abbreviated for the convenience of the students.

DISTILLATION

This method is used for the purification of liquids which boils without decomposition and contain non-volatile impurities. e.g., pure water can be obtained from sea water by distillation, mixture of ether and toluene, benzene and aniline.

CRYSTALLISATION

This method is based the difference in the solubility of the various compound dissolved in a common solvent. e.g., a mixture of Potassium Nitrate and Sodium Chloride can be separated by this process.

PROPERTIES OF CATHODE RAYS

- Cathode rays always travel in straight line. Whenever an object is placed in the path of cathode rays, it casts a shadow on the walls opposite to the cathode.
- Cathode rays consist of material particles and produce mechanical effects.
- The beam of cathode rays are deflected towards the positively charged plate, hence the particles in the cathode rays carry negative charge.
- Cathode rays are also deflected from their path in magnetic field.
- Cathode rays penetrate the sheets of aluminium and other metals.
- The cathode rays produce X-rays when they strike metals with high melting point like tungsten.
- The cathode rays upon striking glass or certain other material cause them to glow.

DISTILLATION UNDER REDUCED PRESSURE

This process is used for those liquids which decomposes below their boiling point under reduced pressure, liquids boils at low temperature. Hence, the temperature for decomposition is not reached. Thus, this process is known as vacuum distillation e.g., glycerol can be separated by this method. It is also used for the concentration of sugar cane juice in sugar industry.

CHROMATOGRAPHY

Chromatography is a modern method proposed by Tswett in 1903. This method is based on the difference in the rates at which the components of a mixture are adsorbed on a suitable adsorbent. This method has been used to separate o and p- nitrophenol, to separate blue and red dyes, to separate plant pigments and other natural products.

DISCOVERY OF ELECTRON

Electron was discovered by J.J Thomson in 1897. When an electric charge at high voltage is passed through a gas at low pressure, a stream of rays is emitted from the cathode surface. These are called cathode rays.

DRAWBACKS OF DALTON ATOMIC THEORY

- It does not explain why atoms of different elements differ in their masses, valencies, etc.
- It does not explain the existence of isotopes and isobars.
- It does not explain the reason for difference in atoms of different elements.
- Discovery of electron, proton, and neutron discarded the individual nature of atom proposed by Dalton.

DALTON'S ATOMIC THEORY

The first definite theory about the structure of the matter was put forward by John Dalton in 1890.
Its main postulates are;
- All matter is made up of very small particles known as atoms.
- Atom neither be created nor be destroyed, it is the smallest particle that take part in a chemical reaction.
- All atoms of an element are alike and of different elements are different.
- Atoms of different elements have different masses and chemical properties.
- Atoms combine together in the ratio of small whole numbers.

HISTORY OF PLANNING IN INDIA

1.) First attempt to initiate economic planning in India was made by Sir M Vishveshvarayya, a noted engineer and politician, in 1934 through his book 'PLANNED ECONOMY FOR INDIA".

2.) In 1938, national planning commission was set up under the chairmanship of Jawahar lal nehru by the Indian National Congress. Its recommendations could not be implemented because of the beginning of the world war II and changes in the the Indian political situations.

3.) In 1944, 'Bombay Plan' was presented by 8 leading industrialists of Bombay. It was drafted by GD Birla and JRD Tata.

4.) In 1944, 'Gandhian Plan' was given by Sarojini Naidu Agarwal.

5.) In 1945, 'People's Plan' was given by MN Roy.

6.) In 1950, 'Sarvodaya Plan' was given by JP Narayan. A few points of this plan were accepted by the government.

BROAD SECTORS OF INDIAN ECONOMY

1. PRIMARY SECTOR
    Agriculture, forestry, fishing.

2. SECONDARY SECTOR
    Mining, Manufacturing, electricity gas and water supply, construction.

3. TERTIARY SECTOR
    Business, transport, telecommunication, banking, insurance, real estate, community and personnel services.

Important Facts about Some Metals (PART-II)

1. Chromium trioxide is known as chromic acid.
2. Nichrome wire is used in electric heaters[Ni, Cr, Fe].
3. Generally transition metals and their compounds are coloured.
4. Zeolite is used to remove hardness of water.
5. In cytochrome iron[Fe] is present.
6. Selenium metal is used in photo electric cell.
7. Gallium metal is liquid at room temperature.
8. Palladium metal is used in aeroplane.
9. Radium extracted from pitch blende.
10. World famous Eiffel Tower has steel and cement base.

CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN ECONOMY

Main characteristics of Indian Economy are;

1. AGRARIAN ECONOMY
    In an Agrarian economy, agriculture dominates in both the Gross National Product(GNP) and employment. More than half of India's working population is engaged in agriculture.

2. MIXED ECONOMY
    It is an economy, where both public and private sector co-exist. The nature of Indian economy is a mixed economy.The term was coined by J M KEYNES. India opted for 'Mixed economy' in the industrial policy of 1948.

3. DEVELOPING ECONOMY
    Following are the features which shows that India is developing economy:
    - Low per capita income
    - Heavy population pressure
    - Low capita per head
    - Unequal distribution of wealth/assets.

INDIAN ECONOMY

Economy is a framework that deals with four major decisions i.e, investments, production, consumption and expenditure.
Economics was defined by ADAM SMITH, "the father of economics, as the science relating to the laws of production, distribution and exchange".
Economics consists of two main branches micro-economics and macro-economics. The former deals with the forces of demand and supply, market types, labour supply and demand on a ceterus paribus approach. The later is concerned with aggregate output and income, inflation etc.

Important Facts about Some Metals (PART-I)

1. Zinc Phosphide is used for killing rats.
2. Wood furnitures are coated with zinc chloride to prevent termites.
3. Excess of copper in human beings causes disease called wilson.
4. Galvanised iron is coated with zinc.
5. Rusting of iron is a chemical change with increase the weight of iron.
6. Calcium Hydroxide is called Hydrolith.
7. Calcium hydride is used to prepare fire proof and waterproof clothes.
8. In flash bulbs, magnesium wire is kept in atmosphere of nitrogen gas.
9. Titanium is strategies metal because it is lighter than iron.
10. Group 1st elements are called alkali metals because its hydroxides are alkaline whereas group 2nd elements are called alkaline earth metals.

Vocabulary(A)

5. ABATE : to make or become less strong

SYNONYM : weakening, feeble
ANTONYM : strengthening, powerful

Emotions of a man abate him.  

Vocabulary(A)

4. ABASHED : Embarrassed

SYNONYM : guilt, feeling of shy
ANTONYM : cheerful, happy, joyous

He is abashed of his own mistakes.

Vocabulary(A)

3. ABASE : to humiliate

SYNONYM : degrade, disregard, dishonour
ANTONYM : regard, honour, respect, dignity

Abasing someone is immoral.

Vocabulary(A)

1. ABACK : taken by surprise

SYNONYM : shocked, sudden, at random
ANTONYM : relax, contended

Sudden appearance of snake made him aback.

Vocabulary(A)

2. ABANDON : to leave forever

SYNONYM : stop doing something, abolish
ANTONYM : continue, carry on

Railways has abandoned their outer signal.

Jahangir Facts - 5

Reign An Era Of Family Strife And Notable Architecture

Jahangir's reign was noted for architectural works. When his chief minister Itimad-ud-daulah died in 1622, his daughter, the powerful Nur Jahan, commissioned the construction in white marble of his exquisite tomb at Agra which was finished in 1628. Unlike the much larger Taj Mahal, with which it ranked in quality, the appeal of the tomb depended on its decoration. It looked like a brilliant casket, bejewelled with various styles of inlay. Its two major innovations—the extensive use of white marble as a material and inlay as a decorative motif—were to become the distinguishing features of the greatest period of Mughal architecture.

The high quality of both paintings and coins during Jahangir's reign was a direct result of the emperor's personal interest. Having grown up at Fatehpur-Sikri in the busy days of Akbar's studio, he was a keen student of technique and claimed to be able to tell which master had painted the eye and eyebrow in a face and which the rest of the portrait. In addition, he seems to have invented and commissioned from his artists a new style of political allegory in art which, however self-congratulatory and vain, provided some of the most magnificent paintings of the period. One such picture claims to celebrate a new spirit of peace with his Persian neighbor, Shah Abbas.

Toward the end of Jahangir's reign, Nur Jahan took a more active role in the government and appointed her politically adroit brother, Asaf Khan, as the premier of the realm. In 1626, brother and sister decided to attack the powerful Mahabat Khan. An Afghan by birth, Mahabat Khan realized the precarious situation and so marched north with 5,000 Rajput troops toward the imperial camp on the bank of the Jhelum. As Jahangir and Nur Jahan traveled to Kabul, Mahabat Khan took the emperor prisoner. Though Jahangir managed to escape with the help of a clever scheme by Nur Jahan, Mahabat Khan then joined forces with Shah Jahan. The prince was now stronger than ever.

A shaken emperor turned north to the only place where he now found solace. For several years, he had made an almost annual journey to Kashmir. There, he had found a natural paradise, but he and his court had done much to make it an artificial one. The Mughal gardens, which are one of the main glories of Srinagar, are the direct result of his enthusiasm. The Shalimar Bagh, built by Jahangir, is distinguished by a series of pavilions on carved pillars, surrounded by pools with seats which can only be reached by stepping stones.

When Jahangir died in October on 1627 in a village at the foot of the Kashmir hills, Asaf Khan betrayed his sister by backing his son-in-law, Shah Jahan. Informed by Asaf's courier of his father's death, Shah Jahan rushed north to claim his throne, reaching the capital in 1628. Nur Jahan was pensioned off and went to live in solitude in Lahore until she died in 1645.

While some European historians consider Jahangir as a fickle-minded tyrant, Indian authors regard him as a just and noble ruler. Most writers now agree that he was a highly educated and cultured man. His autobiography is a testimony of his interest in subjects like botany and zoology. Among the notable buildings renovated by him, Akbar's tomb at Sikandra is the most remarkable. He altered its design and partly rebuilt it. Under his patronage, a great mosque was built in Lahore; it rivals the grand mosque in Delhi, built by his son, Shah Jahan.

But he did not possess the high idealism and genius of Akbar. The administrative machinery of his father was allowed to remain untouched. The vakil (chief minister) remained the highest dignitary next to the emperor. A liberal ruler, he made no departure from his father's policy of admitting Hindus to higher public services. On the whole, Jahangir was a successful ruler and his people were well off. Agriculture, industries, and commerce flourished. Jahangir's diary is brimming with his ideas for promoting social justice and administrative efficiency, and in most cases he tried to follow or outdo the liberal ideas of his father, but he was less successful in putting them into effect.

Jahangir Facts - 4

Wife And Son Vie For Power

The most important development in the first half of Jahangir's reign had been the rise of his favorite wife Nur Jahan ("Light of the World") and the emergence of this third son Khurram (whose mother was a Rajput princess). Nur Jahan was a lady of great energy and many talents. Because of her, Persian poets and artists, architects, and musicians flocked to the Mughal court at Agra. She became an effective political power in India. But Shah Jahan was the leading contender for his father's mantle, and Nur Jahan resented his growing influence.

Nur Mahal's first step was simply to persuade the suggestible Jahangir that Shah Jahan should leave court, get away from the center of affairs, and return to military service against rival kings in the Deccan. Shah Jahan accepted the commission in ill grace, and took with him Khusrau, who had remained popular despite his rebellion and had a strong claim to the throne. Hearing that Jahangir's health was worsening and that his death was imminent, Shah Jahan's first act was to kill this brother, who would otherwise have become the center of a rival faction.

In 1623, Shah Jahan marched in open rebellion toward Agra. At Nur Mahal's behest an imperial army set out to track down Shah Jahan's forces, but the shrewd prince evaded his pursuers rather than meet them at a military disadvantage. The rebellious Shah Jahan was chased around southeast India for three years before finally agreeing to return to his father's fold.

Meanwhile, Jahangir held an impressive court. For one thing, he was fond of religious discourse. Sir Thomas Roe of England would testify that the Emperor accorded equal welcome to Christians, Jews, and Muslims. Once again, Hindu festivals like Rakhi, Dasahra, etc., were allowed to be celebrated. Because of his father, Jahangir had come in contact with the Jesuits at an early age and treated them with great courtesy. He was too good a Muslim and too proud a Mughal, however, to convert to Christianity as they had hoped. The veneration he showed to the paintings of Jesus and Mary was due to his passion for works of art. Though in the spirit of the times there were incidents of fanaticism, for the most part Jahangir followed the policy of Akbar in showing general tolerance for Christianity and contributing large sums for the erection of churches.

Soon the Jesuit mission at the Mughal court assumed the character and functions of an embassy with the intention of outplaying the English and furthering the interests of the Portuguese. But Portuguese power, owing to its contempt for orientals, was already on the decline. The English seized the opportunity and made a significant impression on Jahangir. English trade was then secured.

In 1608, Captain William Hawkins arrived with a letter from James I of England. Though the emperor was impressed, the Portuguese effectively prevented Hawkins from gaining any tangible success from his mission. In 1615, came the aforementioned Sir Thomas Roe, England's first official ambassador to India, who tried to secure from the Mughal ruler a trade agreement for the young East India Company. The Portuguese had a head start in the lucrative business of exporting calicoes and indigo from India, and the Dutch also were ahead of the English. Though Roe failed to enter into any agreement with Jahangir, he secured some privileges for the English trading company that made it a factor in Indian politics. Roe's accounts provide valuable insight into the royal court.

A notable military success of Jahangir's reign was the capture of the strong fortress of Kangra in the northeast Punjab on November 16, 1620. But this event, which Jahangir found cause for exultation, was quickly followed by disasters and rebellions which continued until he died. Alienated by the intrigues of his wife Nur Jahan, his son Shah Jahan rose in rebellion against him. Facing Persian pressure from the northwest and the defection of Shah Jahan within the heart of the empire, Jahangir's situation was grave. Though Shah Jahan's rebellion ended in futility, it caused substantial damage to the empire.

Jahangir Facts - 3

Jahangir Gains Territories And Erects Statues And Mosques

In pursuance of his father's policy of imperialism, Jahangir aimed at the conquest of the entire country. In 1605, he sent his second son to reduce Rana Amar Singh, a Hindu ruler, to submission. It was not easy to conquer the great fort of Chittor. In 1608, the Emperor sent another force. Eventually a treaty of peace was signed in 1615. Because the Rana recognized the suzerainty of Jahangir, the Mughal emperor restored all his territory, including Chittor. Jahangir's treaty is a landmark in the history of the relations between Mewar and Delhi. No ruler of the Sishodia dynasty had ever before openly professed allegiance to a Mughal ruler and a long-drawn struggle came to an end. Subsequently, Jahangir placed two lifesize marble statues of the Rana and his son in the gardens of his palace at Agra. By granting generous terms and adopting a conciliatory policy, Jahangir secured Mewar's loyalty for the empire which lasted until his grandson's (Emperor Aurangzeb) policy alienated Rana Raj Singh.

Jahangir's Deccan policy was a continuation of that of Akbar's which, following ancient Hindu traditions, treated the north and south as indivisible parts of one country. It was the emperor's desire to annex Ahmadnagar and, if possible, the two remaining independent states of Bijapur and Golkunda. Jahangir placed his son, Prince Khurram, in command of his army in 1613 and ordered him to lead a number of campaigns against Rajput forces in Mewar and Kanga, and the Deccani sultanates of Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, and Golkonda. The long siege of Kanga was brought to a successful end in 1629. This was the most notable military achievement of Jahangir's reign, prompting him to visit the place of conquest and build mosques there.

The complete success of the Mughal army over the forces of Ahmadnagar was not possible, however, owing in part to the strength of the Deccan kingdom and in part to the inferiority of Mughal weapons. Not only did Ahmadnagar defy the Mughal advance, but successful opposition came from an able Abyssinian named Malik Ambar, a former slave, who prepared for a war by training the mountaineers of Maharasthra in guerrilla tactics (later perfected by the great Hindu ruler Shivaji to the despair of Emperor Aurangzeb). When the Mughals had partial success in 1616, Prince Khurram was rewarded by Jahangir with the title of Shah Jahan ("King of the World"). But the Deccan was far from conquered.

Jahangir Facts - 2

Anxious For The Throne

In compliance with the time, the prince was also given training in civil and military administration. During the Kabul expedition of 1581, he was placed in charge of a regiment of troops and subsequently conducted independent military expeditions. In 1585, he was elevated to the rank of an army officer, commanding 12,000 men. Unfortunately, he was familiar with wine at an early age and became addicted to the good life. He was also impatient. An estrangement developed between father and son due to the prince's scheming ambition to succeed to his father's throne without the customary death of his father. When Akbar was persuaded by his favorite courtier Abul Fazl to develop a brotherhood of "seekers" who viewed the emperor as divinely inspired and hailed him with the phrase allahu akbar, in 1602 the prince had Abul Fazl murdered. Akbar was so depressed by the death of his friend that he did not appear in public for three days. But there was no other reliable successor. Desperate to keep the dynasty alive, in 1605, a dying Akbar (from poisoning traceable to the prince) reluctantly had his imperial turban placed on the head of his eldest son.

A week later, Salim succeeded to the throne at Agra at the age of 36, assuming the name Nur-ud-din Muhammad Jahangir. But he was soon disturbed by the impatience of his own eldest son, Khusrau. When Prince Khusrau's troops were defeated by the imperial forces near Jullunder, the captive prince suffered total humiliation; Janhagir had his son ride along a street lined with the impaled bodies of his recent supporters. Khusrau had neither the capacity to organize a successful revolt nor moral and material support of any influential party in the state, and the people had no desire to have him as their ruler. Jahangir then turned to Sikh Guru Arjun, who had given money to the rebellious Khusrau, and fined him for his offence. But Guru Arjun refused to pay. Though the Sikh was subjected to torture until he died, evidence shows that the Sikh religious leaders suffered only when they interfered in politics. Jahangir did not persecute the Sikhs out of hand.

In fact, Jahangir was determined to dispense justice fairly. One of his earliest orders was the setting up of a "chain of justice" made of gold. Anyone who failed to secure justice might pull the end outside the Agra fort in order to draw the attention of the emperor so that the latter might redress his grievances.

Internal disturbances in India prompted the Shah of Persia to make a bid for the fortress of Kandahar. Owing to its strategic and commercial importance, the fort was a bone of contention between Persia and India during the middle ages. After the death of the second Mughal ruler Humayun, it was given to Shah Husain Mirza by the Persian emperor. Though Akbar had recovered it in 1594, it had again passed into Persian hands. Three attempts were made to recapture the fortress, but the Mughal armies were unsuccessful. These repeated failures had diminished the prestige of the Empire.

Jahangir Facts - 1

Jahangir (1569-1627), the fourth Mughal Emperor of India and patron of the arts, ruled for 22 years.

Jahangir was an amicable, liberal Muslim—an emperor who loved painting, architecture, and the fine arts. A successful and benevolent ruler, he cherished the well-being of his Indian subjects, revered both Hindu and Muslim saints, and improved social conditions without interfering with customs. But Jahangir was not without military ambitions. A capable soldier, he dreamt of conquering Transoxiana, the seat of the government of the early Timurids.

Jahangir was a child of many prayers—the eldest son of Akbar, one of the most notable rulers in Islamic history, and his Rajput wife Jodh Bai. The boy was brought up with all possible care and affection and when he grew up, arrangements were made for his education at the new capital, Fatehpur-Sikri. Expert tutors taught the prince Persian, Turki, Arabic, Hindi, arithmetic, history, and geography, but he was most influenced by Abdur Rahim Khan Khana, a versatile genius, soldier, and successful diplomat. Under his guidance, Prince Salim (Jahangir) also mastered the technique of composing verses.

Facts Of Akbar-11

Akbar-the Social Reformer



As an individual, Akbar always promoted and propagated an ethical way of living life. He was very progressive in his thought as it is evident from his views on child marriage. Akbar vehemently opposed the idea of child marriage and also opposed the social norm which prevented widows from getting remarried. He also despised the practice of Sati tradition and in this regard, he took strong legislative steps to put the practice of this tradition to an end.

Facts Of Akbar-10

Akbar- the Statesman



Akbar was more than an able administrator in the sense that he could foresee that the path for future of his kingdom lied in creating a social order that could endure the differences of caste, creed, culture and religion. He served as a people’s king who had mastered the art of governing a nation-state well before the concept of nation-state came into being. It is because of this rule is known as the ‘Golden period of Mughal Empire’.

Facts Of Akbar-9

Akbar- the Administrator



Akbar’s administrative acumen was well displayed by his Mansabdari System. This was a system of administration introduced by Akbar to divide the whole territory into small regions and appoint Mansabars to control over the small regions. This system is the model for the present day federal system of governance which is practiced in many countries throughout the world. He was an able administrator in the sense that he could not only retain the huge territory he had but was also able to administer it.

Facts Of Akbar-8

Akbar-the Hunter



Another attribute of the persona of Akbar was his fearlessness due to which he became a hunter. His courage made hunting a passion for him and his derived great pleasure from hunting. Initially, he was accompanied by his trustable when he went for hunting but later he started going alone for hunting. He also liked to keep wild animals as pets. He relished hunting lions, cheetahs, black-bucks, tigers and also elephants sometimes.

Facts Of Akbar-7

Akbar-the Warrior



To accomplish his expansionist ideas, Akbar didn’t only have a liberal attitude that could win the heart of people but he also had all the attributes of a warrior. In the second battle of Panipat, Hemu suffered a huge defeat at the hands of Akbar. He was also victorious in the Battle of Talikota fought in 1576. Akbar also defeated Rana Pratap of Chittod in a battle. Since his childhood, Akbar grew to be fearless.

Facts Of Akbar-6

Akbar- the Intellectual



Having spent most of his childhood in exile and also being dyslexic, Akbar could read and write but he had a flair for learning and art. He always used to remain in the company of intellectuals and religious leaders. It was because of this only that his court was graced by the presence of the most extraordinary talented individuals of all the times. To keep himself ahead of times, he continuously involved himself in the process of knowledge acquisition through whatever means.

Facts Of Akbar-5

Akbar’s trustable- the Navratanas



Akbar was a great patron of art and culture. Hence, his court was home to many extraordinary talents from the field of arts and culture. Among his trustable, he had a special category of men called as the Navratanas or the nine gems. Each of these nine gems was genius in his own right. The most notable among them was Birbal, whose is well known for his wit. Another was Tansen, who was a singer. It is said that he could bring the clouds to rain with his songs. Abul Fazl was the chief advisor to Akbar. He also went on to write Akbar’s biography which is titled-‘Ain-i-Akbari’. Raja Todar Mal was another trustable of Akbar who used to be the finance minister of Akbar. Raja Man Singh served as the General in Akbar’s court and he used to assist Akbar in administration of the kingdom.

Facts Of Akbar-4

Akbar- the Architect



Akbar, apart from being an able administrator and founder of a religion, was also fond of great architectural structures. During his reign, he built many great architectural masterpieces and this also became a legacy for the Mughal rulers. It is evident from the fact that his successors Jahangir and Shah Jahan went on to build many architectural masterpieces. On his watch, Akbar made many historical monuments like Agra Fort, Fatehpur Sikri, Buland Darwaza, and Lahore Palace etc.

Facts Of Akbar-3

Akbar-the Expansionist


After Akbar had established the Mughal Empire in the northern India, he commenced the expansion of his territorial boundary to the southern part of India. As a result, such was the might of his empire that it stretched from Sindh in the western part of India to Bengal in the eastern part of India and from present day Afghanistan to the Godavari basin in south. His tolerant and liberal attitude towards other faiths also helped him a great deal in the expansion of his territory.

Facts Of Akbar-2

Akbar- the Polemic




It is widely known that unlike his processors and successors, Akbar was tolerant towards all religions. It is less known that in 1563, Akbar was the king who repealed the law to collect tax from Hindu pilgrims if they visited their holy places. He had a liberal attitude towards all religions. This liberal attitude also helped him a lot in the expansion of his territory. Later, he went on lay the foundation of a new religion- Din-e-Illahi. Although Din-e-Illahi was not a religion in the true sense of the term since it didn’t have any holy-book or formal base. He founded this religion to create a unified social order which could transcend the difference based on religion. Din-e-Illahi was based on the basic principles of the major religions such a Hinduism, Islam and Parsi faith. Though his religion failed and hence, had to be abolished soon. If Akbar could have succeeded in propagating his religion, he could have created a unified social order which could endure differences based on religion.

Facts Of Akbar-1

Jalal-ud-Din Muhammad Akbar, popularly known as Akbar, perhaps, was the greatest Mughal Emperor to have ruled over India for a good period of more than half a century. He is credited to have to have contributed the most in establishing the Mughal Empire in India. Akbar not only established the Mughal Empire in India but also created a legacy in front of his successors through his statesmanship to be followed for all the years to come. He also contributed significantly to the Indian political thought through his model of revenue collection and administration. Akbar’s childhood, if described geographically, was no less than a rugged terrain. Born to Humayun, the second Mughal emperor and Hamida Banu Begum on 14th October, 1542 in erstwhile Sindh, now in Pakistan, Akbar didn’t experienced the child hood of a royal prince. At the time of his birth, his parents were in exile; therefore he was brought up by his uncle, Bayram Khan while his parents were in exile in the erstwhile Persia. Although Humayun managed to regain his kingdom, he did not live long to hold his kingdom. Thus, Akbar ascended to the throne at tender age of 13. No one thought, at that point of time, that he could what he did but for Akbar, life had never been comfortable. In his initial years as the king, he learned the ropes of governance under the tutelage of his uncle, Bayram Khan but soon he realised that his uncle’s ideology was not accommodative of his thoughts. Hence, he asked to proceed for hajj to Mecca and he took the control of the entire administration into his own hands. Akbar has attracted more love than loathing from historians but it can be agreed by all that he was the greatest Mughal king of India.

INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES

Durand Line	Pakistan and Afghanistan
McMahon Line	India & China
Radcliffe Line	India & Pakistan
Hindenburg Line	Germany & Poland
Mannerhiem Line	Russia & Finland
Maginot Line	Germany & France
30th Parallel	North & South Korea
49th Parallel	USA & Canada

NATIONAL EMBLEM OF SOME IMPORTANT COUNTRIES

Country	Emblem
India	Lioned Capitol
Pakistan	Cresent and star
Bangladesh	water lily
Netherlands	Lion
UK	Rose
USA	Golden rod
Italy	White Lily
Australia	Kangaroo
Newzealand	kiwi
Germany	Com flower
Norway	Lion
France	Lily
Iran	Rose
Spain	Eagle
japan	Chrysanthemum
Canada	Maple Leaf, White Lily

SOME IMPORTANT MONUMENTS OF THE WORLD

Monuments/ Structure	Country
The leaning tower of Pisa	Italy
Kremlin	Russia
Parathanon	Greece
Imperial Palace	Japan
Statue of Liberty	USA
Opera House	Australia
Pyramid	Egypt
Eiffel Tower	France
Wailing Wall	Jerusalem
Great Wall	China
Taj Mahal	India

Cool Facts About Space-10

Fact: If two pieces of metal touch in space, they become permanently stuck together

This may sound unbelievable, but it is true. Two pieces of metal without any coating on them will form in to one piece in the vacuum of space. This doesn’t happen on earth because the atmosphere puts a layer of oxidized material between the surfaces. This might seem like it would be a big problem on the space station but as most tools used there have come from earth, they are already coated with material. In fact, the only evidence of this seen so far has been in experiments designed to provoke the reaction. This process is called cold welding.

Cool Facts About Space-9

Fact: Sunspot activity may be the primary reason for the beautiful sound of Stradivarius violins

Antonio Stradivari is considered to be the greatest violin maker ever. He lived in Italy in the 17th and 18th centuries. Scientists have been unable to work out what it is about his violins that makes them so incredible, but they do know that the timber used to make them is a very important contributing factor. From the 1500s to 1800s, the earth underwent a little ice age mostly due to increased volcanic activity and decreased solar activity (this is called the Maunder Minimum). As a result of this cooling, the types of trees that Stradivari used for his violins were particularly hard (due to slow growth). Hard timber is especially good when making violins. It is very probable that had Stradivari lived in a different age, his violins would not be prized as they are today.

Cool Facts About Space-8

Fact: Earth has at least 4 moons

Okay – that is not actually true – but it is very close. In 1986, Duncan Waldron discovered a asteroid (5km across) that is in an elliptic orbit around the sun with a period of revolution virtually identical to that of Earth. For this reason the planetoid and earth appear to be following each other. The periodic planetoid is named Cruithne (pronounced krin-y?) after an ancient group of Scottish people (also known as the Picts). Because of its unusual relationship with Earth, it is sometimes referred to as Earth’s second moon. Cruithne, is fainter than Pluto and would require at least a 12.5 inch reflecting telescope to attempt to be seen. Since its discovery, at least three other similar asteroids have been discovered. These types of objects are also found in similar relationships to other planets in our Solar System.

Cool Facts About Space-7

Fact: Uranus was originally called George’s Star

When Sir William Herschel discovered Uranus in 1781, he was given the honor of naming it. He chose to name it Georgium Sidus (George’s Star) after his new patron, King George III (Mad King George). This is what he said:

In the fabulous ages of ancient times the appellations of Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn were given to the Planets, as being the names of their principal heroes and divinities. In the present more philosophical era it would hardly be allowable to have recourse to the same method and call it Juno, Pallas, Apollo or Minerva, for a name to our new heavenly body. The first consideration of any particular event, or remarkable incident, seems to be its chronology: if in any future age it should be asked, when this last-found Planet was discovered? It would be a very satisfactory answer to say, ‘In the reign of King George the Third.’

Uranus was also the first planet to be discovered with the use of a telescope.

Cool Facts About Space-6

Fact: The Big Dipper is not a constellation, it is an Asterism

Many people consider the big dipper to be a constellation but, in fact, it is an asterism. An asterism is a pattern of stars in the sky which is not one of the official 88 constellations; they are also composed of stars which are not physically related to each other and can be vast distances apart. An asterism can be composed of stars from one or more constellations – in the case of the Big Dipper, it is composed entirely of the seven brightest stars in the Ursa Major (Great Bear) constellation.

Cool Facts About Space-5

Fact: The Sun loses up to a billion kilograms a second due to solar winds

Solar winds are charged particles that are ejected from the upper surface of the sun due to the high temperature of the corona and the high kinetic energy particles gain through a process that is not well understood at this time. Also, did you know that 1 pinhead of the sun’s energy is enough to kill a person at a distance of 160 kilometers?

Cool Facts About Space-4

Fact: The light hitting the earth right now is 30 thousand years old

The energy in the sunlight we see today started out in the core of the Sun 30,000 years ago – it spent most of this time passing through the dense atoms that make the sun and just 8 minutes to reach us once it had left the Sun! The temperature at the core of the sun is 13,600,000 kelvins. All of the energy produced by fusion in the core must travel through many successive layers to the solar photosphere before it escapes into space as sunlight or kinetic energy of particles.

Cool Facts About Space-3

Fact: The moon is drifting away from Earth

Every year the moon moves about 3.8cm further away from the Earth. This is caused by tidal effects. Consequently, the earth is slowing in rotation by about 0.002 seconds per day per century. Scientists do not know how the moon was created, but the generally accepted theory suggests that a large Mars sized object hit the earth causing the Moon to splinter off.

Cool Facts About Space-2

Fact: We are moving through space at the rate of 530km a second

Our Galaxy – the Milky Way is spinning at a rate of 225 kilometers per second. In addition, the galaxy is travelling through space at the rate of 305 kilometers per second. This means that we are traveling at a total speed of 530 kilometers (330 miles) per second. That means that in one minute you are about 19 thousand kilometers away from where you were. Scientists do not all agree on the speed with which the Milky Way is travelling – estimates range from 130 – 1,000 km/s. It should be said that Einstein’s theory of relativity, the velocity of any object through space is not meaningful.

Cool Facts About Space-1

Fact: If you put Saturn in water it would float

The density of Saturn is so low that if you were to put it in a giant glass of water it would float. The actual density of Saturn is 0.687 g/cm3 while the density of water is 0.998 g/cm3. At the equator Saturn has a radius of 60,268 ± 4 km – which means you would need an extremely large glass of water to test this out.

Remarkable Facts About Physics-10

The amount of sunlight reaching the earth's surface is 6,000 times the amount of energy used by all human beings worldwide. The total amount of fossil fuel used by humans since the start of civilization is equivalent to less than 30 days of sunshine.

Remarkable Facts About Physics-9

Some people who have two or more different kinds of fillings in their teeth are able to hear high-power AM broadcast stations when located within a few hundred feet of the stations. In such cases, the radio waves act upon the teeth fillings in such a way that the electromagnetic oscillations get transformed to mechanical vibrations in the person's head, and these are heard as sound. 

Remarkable Facts About Physics-8

The Eiffel Tower is 15cm taller in summer because of thermal expansion. 

Remarkable Facts About Physics-7

In 1936 Professor Alfred Gaydon underwent surgery on his eyes after an accident. When his sight began to return he found that he could see ultra-violet light, which is normally beyond the visible spectrum of humans. This helped in his work as a physicist, but it did distort how he saw other colours! 

Remarkable Facts About Physics-6

Cats can see clearly in one-sixth the amount of light we humans would need. This is due to a special layer of cells at the back of their retinas, which acts like a mirror, reflecting light back to the retina's cells. 

Remarkable Facts About Physics-5

A TV screen shows 24 pictures a second. Because a fly sees 200 images a second, it would see TV as still pictures with darkness in between. 

Remarkable Facts About Physics-4

Whales talk to each other by making a loud clicking noise. The sound waves travel extremely well underwater so they can hear each other from 100 miles away. 

Remarkable Facts About Physics-3

12 Astronauts have walked on the moon, bringing back 382 kilograms of rocks, pebbles, sand and dust between them.

Remarkable Facts About Physics-2

If every star in the Milky Way was a grain of salt they would fill an Olympic sized swimming pool. 

Remarkable Facts About Physics-1

When a flea jumps, the rate of acceleration is 20 times that of the space shuttle during launch.

SUPERLATIVES-WORLD(PART-III)

Tallest Minaret	Great Hassan Mosque, morocco
Deepest and biggest ocean	The pacific
Largest Palace	Imperial Palace, China
Largest park	National Park, Greenland
largest peninsula	arabia
Coldest place	Vrkhoyansk, Siberia
dryest place	Death valley, California
Hottest place	Al-Aziziyah
Largest planet	Jupiter
Brightest and hottest planet near to earth	Venus
Farthest planet from sun	Neptune
Nearest planet to sun	Mercury
Smallest planet	Mercury
Highest plateau	Pamir(Tibet)
Longest platform(Railway)	Kharagpur, west bengal
Largest platform(Railway)	Grand central terminal, Newyork
Largest Port	Port of Newyork and New Jersey
Bussiest port	Rotterdam
Longest River	Nile, Amazon

SUPERLATIVES-WORLD(PART-II)

Largest dam	Grand Coulee-Concrete Dam
longest day	June. 21
Shortest day	Dec. 22
Largest delta	Sundarbans, India
Largest desert in world	Sahara, Africa
Largest diamond	The cullinan
Biggest dome	Gal Gumbaz(Bizapur)
Longest epic	The Mahabharata
Largest island	Greenland
Largest lake(artificial)	Lake Mead, Bouler
Deepest lake	Baikal(Siberia)
Highest lake	Titicaca, Bolivia
Largest lake(fresh water)	lake superior, USA
Largest lake(salt water)	Caspian sea
Biggest library	National Kiev Library, Moscow
Largest mosque	Jama Masjid, Delhi
Highest mountain peak(world)	Everest(Nepal)
Highest mountain range	Himalayas
Longest mountain range	Andes(S. America)
Biggest museum	British museum(London)
Tallest Minaret(Free Standing)	Qutub Minar, Delhi

SUPERLATIVES-WORLD(PART-I)

Tallest animal on land	Giraffe
Biggest Bell	Great Bell at Moscow
Fastest bird	Swift
Largest bird	Ostrich
Smallest bird	Humming bird
Longest brigde(Railway)	Lower Zambeji(Africa)
Tallest building	Taipei 101(Taiwan)
Tallest office building	Petronas twin towers(Kaula Lumpur)
Longest big ship canal	Suez canal
Bussiest canal(ship)	Baltic white sea canal
Biggest cinema house	Roxy(New York)
Highest city	Wen Chuan(Tibet)
Largest city in population	Tokyo
Biggest city in area	Mount Isa, Queensland, Australia
Largest continent	Asia
Smallest continent	Australia
Highest country	Tibet
Largest country in population	China
Largest country in area	Russia
Largest coral formation	The Crear Barrier reef(Australia)

SUPERLATIVES-INDIA(PART-III)

The highest award	Bharat Ratna
The largest Gurudwara	Golden Temple(Amritsar)
The biggest Church	Saint Cathedral at old Goa (Goa)
The largest TV tower	Pitam pura (New Delhi)
The longest sea beach	Marina beach( Chennai)
The highest road	Road at Kharungla(In Leh-Manali sector)
The largest artificial lake	Govind sagar(Bhakra nangal)
The deepest river Valley	Bhagirathi and Alaknanda
The largest river without delta	Narmada and Tapti
The highest battlefield and the longest glacier	Siachen Glacier
The biggest river island	Majuli Brahmaputra river, Assam
The largest planetorium	Birla planetorium, Kolkatta
The highest airpot	Leh Airport, Ladakh